Mexico

In full United Mexican States (Span. Estados Unidos Mexicanos), federal republic, North America, bounded on the N by the U.S.; on the E by the U.S., the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea; on the S by Belize and Guatemala; and on the W by the Pacific Ocean. Mexican federal jurisdiction encompasses, in addition to Mexico proper, a number of offshore islands. The area of the country is 1,964,375 sq km (758,449 sq mi).

LAND AND RESOURCES

Most of Mexico is an immense, elevated plateau, flanked by mountain ranges that fall sharply off to narrow coastal plains in the W and E. The two mountain chains, the Sierra Madre Occidental to the W and the Sierra Madre Oriental in the E, meet in the SE. There the two ranges form the Sierra Madre del Sur, a maze of volcanic mountains containing the highest peaks in Mexico. The Sierra Madre del Sur leads into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, which lies between the Bay of Campeche and the Gulf of Tehuantepec.

The prominent topographical feature of the country is the central plateau, a continuation of the plains of the southwestern U.S. Comprising more than half the total area of Mexico, the plateau slopes downward from the W to the E and from the S, where the elevation varies from about 1830 to 2440 m (about 6000 to 8000 ft) above sea level, to the N with an elevation of about 1070 to 1220 m (about 3500 to 4000 ft). Two large valleys form notable depressions in the plateau: the Bolsón de Mapimí in the N and the Anáhuac, or Valley of Mexico, in central Mexico.

The coastal plains are generally low, flat, and sandy, although the Pacific coast is occasionally broken by mountain spurs. Baja California, a long, narrow peninsula extending about 1225 km (about 760 mi) S from the NW corner of the country, is traversed by mountains that are a continuation of the coastal ranges in the U.S. state of California. On the Gulf of Mexico, the Yucatán Peninsula, which forms the SE tip of the country, is low and flat, averaging about 30 m (about 100 ft) in elevation.

Rivers and Lakes.

Mexico has few major rivers, and most are not navigable. The longest river is the Rio Grande (called the Río Bravo in Mexico), which forms the natural boundary between Texas and Mexico for 2008 km (1248 mi). Other important rivers include the Pánuco, Grijalva, and Usumacinta in the S and the Conchos in the N. Mexico has few good natural harbors. Veracruz, Altamira, Tampico, and Progreso (serving Mérida) are major Gulf of Mexico ports. Pacific ports include Manzanillo, Ensenada, Mazatlán, and Acapulco. Lake Chapala, in the W, is the largest inland body of water. Anáhuac contains several shallow lakes.

Climate.

Mexico is bisected by the Tropic of Cancer; therefore, the S half is included in the Torrid Zone. In general, climate varies with altitude. The tierra caliente (hot land) includes the low coastal plains, extending from sea level to about 914 m (about 3000 ft). Weather is extremely humid, with temperatures varying from 15.6° to 48.9° C (60° to 120° F). The tierra templada (temperate land) extends from about 914 to 1830 m (about 3000 to 6000 ft) with average temperatures of 16.7° to 21.1° C (62° to 70° F). The tierra fría (cold land) extends from about 1830 to 2745 m (about 6000 to 9000 ft). The average temperature range is 15° to 17.2° C (59° to 63° F).

The rainy season lasts from May to October. Although sections of S Mexico receive from about 990 to 3000 mm (about 39 to 118 in) of rain a year, most of Mexico lacks adequate rainfall. Rainfall averages less than 635 mm (25 in) annually in the tierra templada, about 460 mm (about 18 in) in the tierra fría, and about 254 mm (about 10 in) in the semiarid N.

Natural Resources.

The mineral resources of Mexico are extremely rich and varied. Almost every known mineral is found, including coal, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, silver, gold, copper, lead, and zinc. Proven petroleum and natural-gas reserves are enormous, with some of the world’s largest deposits located offshore, in the Bay of Campeche. Forests and woodland, which cover about 25% of the land, contain such valuable woods as mahogany, ebony, walnut, and rosewood. About 13% of the land is suitable for agriculture, but less than 10% receives enough rainfall for raising crops without irrigation.

Plants and Animals.

Because of the wide range of temperature, the native flora of Mexico is extremely varied. Cactus, yucca, agave, and mesquite are plentiful in the arid N. The tierra caliente is thickly grown with an immense variety of plants, which form a dense tropical jungle in some areas. The trees in this zone include valuable hardwoods, as well as coconut palms, gum trees, and almond, fig, and olive trees. On the mountain slopes grow oaks, pines, and firs. Arctic vegetation is found at the highest altitudes.

Mexican fauna also varies according to the climatic zones. Wolves and coyotes are found in the N. The forests on the mountain slopes are inhabited by ocelots, jaguars, peccaries, bears, and pumas. Fur-bearing seals are found on the coasts. A wide variety of reptiles includes turtle, iguana, rattlesnake, and lizard. Birds, including sea and game birds, are numerous. Along the coast and in the estuaries of rivers fish abound.

POPULATION

The Mexican population is composed of three main groups: the people of Spanish descent, the Indians, and the people of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, or mestizos. Of these groups, the mestizos are by far the largest, constituting about 60% of the population. The Indians total about 30%.

Population.

The population of Mexico at the 2000 census was 97,483,412. The population density, based on this figure, was 50 people per sq km (129 per sq mi). About 75% of the population lived in urban areas. The nation’s population was estimated at 107,449,525 by 2006; about 30 percent were estimated to be under the age of 15.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, more than 20 million persons of Mexican origin were living in the U.S. in 2000. Each year, tens of thousands of Mexican immigrants enter the U.S., many of them illegally.

Political Divisions.

Mexico consists of 32 administrative divisions—31 states and the Distrito Federal (federal district), which is the seat of the federal administration.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF MEXICO
State	Population (2000 census)	Capital
Aguascalientes	944,285	Aguascalientes
Baja California	2,487,367	Mexicali
Baja California Sur	424,041	La Paz
Campeche	690,689	Campeche
Chiapas	3,920,892	Tuxtla Gutiérrez
Chihuahua	3,052,907	Chihuahua
Coahuila	2,298,070	Saltillo
Colima	542,627	Colima
Durango	1,448,661	Durango
Guanajuato	4,663,032	Guanajuato
Guerrero	3,079,649	Chilpancingo
Hidalgo	2,235,591	Pachuca
Jalisco	6,322,002	Guadalajara
México	13,096,686	Toluca
Michoacán	3,985,667	Morelia
Morelos	1,555,296	Cuernavaca
Nayarit	920,185	Tepic
Nuevo León	3,834,141	Monterrey
Oaxaca	3,438,765	Oaxaca
Puebla	5,076,686	Puebla
Querétaro	1,404,306	Querétaro
Quintana Roo	874,963	Chetumal
San Luis Potosí	2,299,360	San Luis Potosí
Sinaloa	2,536,844	Culiacán
Sonora	2,216,969	Hermosillo
Tabasco	1,891,829	Villahermosa
Tamaulipas	2,753,222	Ciudad Victoria
Tlaxcala	962,646	Tlaxcala
Veracruz	6,908,975	Jalapa (Xalapa)
Yucatán	1,658,210	Mérida
Zacatecas	1,353,610	Zacatecas
Distrito Federal	8,605,239	Mexico City

Principal Cities.

The capital and cultural center of the country is Mexico City, with a population (2000 census) of 8,605,239; the city, which is coextensive with the Distrito Federal, is the hub of one of the world’s largest metropolitan regions, with more than 18 million people. Other important urban areas include Guadalajara (greater city, 3,677,531), a vital commercial and industrial center; Monterrey (3,243,466), a center for heavy industry; Puebla (2,220,236), one of Mexico’s oldest cities and a major producer of automobiles and automotive parts; and Tijuana (1,274,240), a busy port of entry, tourist hub, and center for export-oriented manufacturing.

Language.

The prevailing and official language is Spanish, which is spoken by the great majority of the population. Indian languages number about 13, with many different dialects, the chief of which is Nahuatl (see American Indian Languages), or Aztec. Other major dialects include Maya, spoken in the Yucatán Peninsula, and Otomí, common in central Mexico. Successive governments have instituted educational programs to teach Spanish to all of the Indians.

Religion.

Roman Catholicism is the faith of about 89% of the people. Mexico’s long tradition of official anticlericalism ended in 1992 when constitutional changes granted legal status to religious institutions and allowed parochial schools. Protestants (about 6%) represent a small but growing minority in Mexico.

EDUCATION AND CULTURE

Mexican culture is a rich, complex blend of Indian, Spanish, and American traditions.

Education.

Primary education is free and compulsory for all children from the ages of 6 through 18. Parochial schools were legalized in the early 1990s. Secondary schools emphasize vocational and technical training. Although adult illiteracy has been a major problem, successful government campaigns have raised the literacy rate from less than 50% in the early 1940s to more than 91% of persons aged 15 or more years in the early 2000s.

Elementary and secondary schools.

Each year in the early 2000s some 14.8 million pupils attended about 99,200 primary schools in Mexico, and approximately 8.6 million students attended about 39,700 secondary schools. Vocational and teacher-training schools numbered about 6600, and they enrolled more than 880,000 students.

Universities and colleges.

Mexico has more than 4100 institutions of higher education, with some 2.1 million students annually in the early 2000s. Among the notable universities are the National Autonomous University of Mexico (1551) and the National Polytechnic Institute (1936), both in Mexico City; the University of Guadalajara (1792); the Benemérita Autonomous University of Puebla (1937); Veracruzana University (1944), in Jalapa (Xalapa); and the Institute of Technology and Higher Education of Monterrey (1943).

Culture.

Rural areas are populated by Indians, descendants of the highly developed societies of the Maya, Aztec, and Toltecs, and by Spanish and mestizo farmers and laborers; each of these heritages has enriched the regional culture. In the cities both European, particularly Spanish and French, and North American influences are evident. Most contemporary Mexican artists are striving to produce identifiably Mexican work that blends Spanish, Indian, and modern European styles.

Libraries and museums.

Most good libraries in Mexico are found within the university system. The National Library (1867), which houses a collection of rare documents, is affiliated with the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Mexico also has the National Archives (1795) and many government libraries that are connected with various ministries.

Many museums are located throughout the country. The National Historical Museum (1825), devoted to history since the Spanish conquest, is located in Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. Mayan, Aztec, and other archaeological artifacts are found in the National Museum of Anthropology (1964), also in Mexico City. Another noted archaeological collection is in Mérida, Yucatán. All are attached to the National Institute of Anthropology and History (1939).

Literature.

Mexican writing in Spanish dates from the 16th century, and many works make use of themes from the oral traditions of the country’s Indians. Noted Mexican writers of the 20th century include the novelists Mariano Azuela (1873–1952), Martín Luis Guzmán (1887–1976), Andrés Henestrosa (1906– ), Agustín Yáñez (1904–80), and Carlos Fuentes (1928– ); the playwrights Víctor Barroso (1890–1936) and Rodolfo Usigli (1905–79); the poet Jaime Sabines Gutiérrez (1926–99), winner of Mexico’s highest literary award, the National Prize for Letters, in 1983; and the poets and essayists Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959) and Octavio Paz, winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1990. See also Latin American Literature.

Art.

A rich tradition of painting and sculpture existed in Mexico long before the arrival of the conquistadores. Combining this tradition with imported Spanish techniques, artists of the colonial period produced works of remarkable depth and purity. The late colonial years, however, were characterized by a purely academic output. One of the most significant artists of the early 20th century was José Guadalupe Posada (1851–1913), who produced violent, powerful posters, lithographs, and woodcuts of contemporary scenes. His followers, Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco, were the leaders of a remarkable group of distinctly Mexican artists who revived the art of fresco painting and produced important easel painting as well. Frida Kahlo used motifs from Mexican popular art in her paintings, which mix fantasy with autobiography and self portraiture. See also Latin American Art and Architecture.

As weavers, potters, and silversmiths, Mexican artisans produce a variety of beautiful and distinctive products, which attract connoisseurs throughout the world. Mexican artisans are also noted for their work in wood, glass, and leather.

Architecture.

Spanish colonial architecture, constructed in Gothic, plateresque, classic, and baroque styles sometimes decorated with Indian motifs, is found throughout Mexico. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, first during the short reign of the Habsburg emperor Maximilian and later under President Porfirio Díaz, the French splendors of the second Empire style were introduced into the capital. Díaz also commissioned the ornate Palace of Fine Arts, completed in the 1930s. Since World War II an architectural renaissance has occurred in Mexico, attracting worldwide attention. The new buildings erected at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, designed by a group of artists and architects under the direction of Carlos Lazo (1914–55), feature outstanding murals in fresco and mosaic; among these are works by the architect and painter Juan O’Gorman (1905–82). A Spanish-born American architect, Felix Candela, created highly original concrete shell designs for several Mexican churches and for the sports palace at the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City. Luis Barragán (1902–88), winner of the Pritzker Architecture Prize (1980), used indigenous forms and materials in creating residential buildings, gardens, plazas, and other public spaces.

Performing arts.

The distinctive folk songs and dances heard from region to region are accompanied by several kinds of guitar-based ensembles. The ubiquitous mariachi, or popular strolling bands, consist of a standard group of instruments: two violins, two five-string guitars, a guitarrón (large bass guitar), and usually a pair of trumpets. In Veracruz the usual musical ensemble is a harp and two small guitars. Marimba ensembles are found in the S. The corrido, a narrative folk ballad in rhymed quatrains derived from the Spanish romanza, is probably Mexico’s most outstanding contribution to American folk music, as well as folk poetry. Some pre-Hispanic dances survive, with Hispanic-influenced music; they include the concheros and voladores dances.

In the field of concert or art music, Mexican musicians led by the composer and conductor Carlos Chávez have received critical acclaim throughout the world. The National Symphony Orchestra of Mexico was founded in 1928 by Chávez. Silvestre Revueltas (1899–1940) composed music of remarkable instrumental color and rhythmic drive, including Sensemayá (1938).

In films, Mexican actors, including Cantinflas, Pedro Armendariz (1912–63), and Dolores Del Rio (1905–83), achieved worldwide fame, as did the directors Emilio Fernández (1904–86), known as El Indio, Héctor Alejandro Galindo Amezcua (1906–99), and Alfonso Cuarón (1961– ), and the cinematographer Gabriel Figueroa Mateos (1907–97). Both theatrical and musical performances, especially opera, are popular in Mexican cities. The Ballet Folklórico de México, a troupe specializing in Mexican folk dances and founded in 1952 by the dancer and choreographer Amalia Hernández (1917–2000), is based in Mexico City but tours internationally. Bullfighting, a reminder of Mexico’s Spanish past, has long been cultivated.

ECONOMY

Mexico reflects a shift from a primary-production economy, based on mining and agriculture, to a semi-industrialized nation. Economic achievements are the result of a vigorous private enterprise sector and government policies that have made economic growth a predominant objective. Traditionally, the government also emphasized Mexicanization of industry, and local control of companies engaged in mining, fishing, transportation, and exploitation of forests was required by law. More recently, however, foreign investment in new enterprises has been actively encouraged, and government controls on many sectors of the economy have been loosened. Ties with the U.S. economy are strong, and Mexico is highly dependent on U.S. trade and investment. Wages are much lower than in the U.S., however, and about one-fourth of the Mexican population lives on less than $2 a day.

Mexico’s gross domestic product (GDP) increased by only 1.1% annually during 1980–90, when weak oil prices, rising inflation, a foreign debt of more than $100 billion, and worsening budget deficits exacerbated the nation’s economic problems. The economic picture brightened in the 1990s, especially with approval of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and GDP growth averaged 3.1% annually during 1990–2001; a short-term currency crisis in mid-decade was eased when the U.S. extended a $20 billion line of credit. In the early 2000s the gross national product was $550.2 billion (about $5530 per capita), and the annual budget totaled $174 billion in revenue and $176 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

The Mexican labor force totaled about 41.5 million persons in the early 2000s. Agriculture employed about 18% of the labor force, manufacturing and construction 24%, and services 58%; up to 25% of the population was underemployed. The largest union in the country is the Confederación de Trabajadores de México (Confederation of Mexican Workers), with more than 5 million members. Statutes prescribe minimum wages and a maximum work week of six 8-hour days.

Agriculture.

The farm sector in the early 2000s accounted for less than 4% of the annual GDP but employed about 18% of the labor force; a substantial number of agricultural workers are employed on ejidos, or communal farms. The government introduced land reform in 1915; since then, much land has been redistributed to the ejidos. Agricultural production has often been impeded by lack of rainfall. Irrigation projects, however, have increased land under cultivation, and soil conservation has improved yields. Mexico not only supplies most of its basic needs but also exports produce. In the early 2000s the major agricultural commodities (with yearly output in metric tons) were sugarcane (46 million), corn (17.5 million), sorghum (5.8 million), and wheat (3.3 million). Other products included oranges (3.8 million), lemons and limes (1.7 million), bananas (2.1 million), mangoes (1.4 million), watermelons (1.2 million), tomatoes (2.1 million), chilies and green peppers (1.8 million), dry beans (1.6 million), and coffee (320,000).

Livestock in the early 2000s included about 30.6 million cattle, 17 million hogs, 9.4 million goats, 6.7 million sheep, 6.3 million horses, 6.5 million mules and asses, and 521 million chickens.

Forestry and Fishing.

About 25% of Mexico is forested. Because of earlier abuse to rich timber stands, all timber cutting is strictly regulated by the government. Roundwood production in the early 2000s annually totaled about 45.2 million cu m (about 1.6 billion cu ft). Much of the wood is used for fuel, but Mexico also produces large amounts of wooden furniture and other forest-related products.

The most important fisheries are found off the coast of Baja California. The fishing industry is primarily controlled by cooperative societies that are granted monopolies of certain species. The principal species caught include shrimp and other shellfish, sardines, tuna, grouper, croaker, anchovies, abalone, and sea turtle. The annual catch in the early 2000s was approximately 1.5 million metric tons.

Mining.

Formerly, almost all mining companies in Mexico were foreign-held. Most, however, cooperated with government efforts in the 1960s to Mexicanize the industry, and majority control of each company is now held by Mexicans. The most valuable mineral resource is petroleum, produced chiefly in Veracruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas states; production is controlled by Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex), a government-owned company. Also important is silver, which is found in every state. Rich gold fields are located on the Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental; copper ore is mined in Sonora State; iron ore is found in the states of Colima, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Durango. In the early 2000s annual output (in metric tons) included 5.5 million of iron ore, 343,000 of copper ore, 147,000 of lead, 402,000 of zinc, 100,000 of manganese, 2760 of silver, and 25.7 of gold. Production of crude petroleum was 1.1 billion barrels; natural gas, 46.6 billion cu m (1.6 trillion cu ft); and coal, 11.4 million metric tons. Significant quantities of barites, clays, graphite, phosphate rock, and sulfur also were recovered.

Manufacturing.

Mexican industry is among the most developed in Latin America. Until the late 1980s, most new factories were built in northern Mexico as maquiladoras, labor-intensive plants assembling imported parts into finished goods for export; more recently, however, U.S. firms have invested heavily in well-equipped modern facilities producing motor vehicles, electrical and electronic equipment, and other items for the U.S. market. Major industrial plants in Mexico also include petroleum refineries; foundries; meat-packing plants; paper mills; cotton mills; tobacco-processing plants; and sugar refineries. Other industrial products include clothing, fertilizer, chemicals, cement, glass, pottery, and leather goods. Mexico’s overall manufacturing output increased at an average rate of 4.2% annually between 1990 and 2001.

Energy.

About 79% of Mexico’s electricity is produced in thermal installations, 14% by hydroelectric facilities, 4% in nuclear installations, and 3% from other sources. In the early 2000s electricity-generating capacity was about 42.3 million kw, and annual output of electricity was some 198.6 billion kwh.

Currency, Banking, and Trade.

The Mexican unit of currency is the new peso, consisting of 100 centavos. The new peso, equivalent to 1000 former pesos, was introduced in 1993 (11.34 new pesos equal U.S.$1; 2004). The central bank and bank of issue is the Bank of Mexico (1925), which is modeled after the U.S. Federal Reserve System. Mexico’s commercial banking system, nationalized in 1982, was restored to private control in the early 1990s.

Annual exports in the early 2000s were valued at about $164.8 billion, and imports in the same period cost approximately $168.9 billion per year. Major exports include crude petroleum, motor vehicles, machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, apparel and textiles, fruits and vegetables, coffee, cotton, chemicals, and silver. The country’s chief imports include machinery, steel, electrical equipment, automotive parts, and aircraft and aircraft components. The great bulk of the country’s trade is with the U.S. and Canada, Mexico’s partners under NAFTA; other important trade partners include Japan, China, and the European Union. Tourism, border trade, foreign investments, and remittances from Mexican workers in the U.S. are significant sources of foreign exchange revenue. See

Transportation.

The nation’s railway system includes about 19,510 km (about 12,120 mi) of operated railroad track. The highway system includes about 329,530 km (about 204,760 mi) of roads, of which about one-third are paved. More than 6400 km (3975 mi) of expressways traverse the country; four main routes between the U.S. border and Mexico City form part of the Pan-American Highway system. Air services have been intensively developed, and the country now has more than 1800 airports and landing fields. Chief airlines are Aerovías de México (Aeroméxico) and Compañía Mexicana de Aviación (Mexicana).

Communications.

Telephone service, previously controlled by a government monopoly, Teléfonos de México (Telmex), was privatized and opened to competition in the 1990s. In the early 2000s, Mexico’s telecommunications network encompassed an estimated 16 million main telephone lines, 28.1 million cellular telephone subscribers, 6.9 million personal computers, 10 million Internet users, and 27.7 million televisions, along with more than 1400 radio stations and over 250 television stations. Leading daily newspapers in the late 1990s included Esto, El Heraldo de México, El Nacional, and La Prensa, all published in Mexico City.

GOVERNMENT

Mexico is a federal republic governed under a constitution promulgated in 1917, as amended.

Executive.

National executive power is vested in a president, who must be Mexican-born and the child of a native Mexican. The president is popularly elected for a 6-year term and may never be reelected. The president appoints the cabinet, which is confirmed by the congress.

Legislature.

Legislative power is vested in a bicameral congress. The upper house, the Senate, has 128 members popularly elected for 6-year terms. Three senators are elected from each state and from the federal district, for a total of 96 seats, with two seats going to the party that wins the most votes in that state, and one seat allocated to the second-place party; the remaining 32 seats are elected by national party list. The lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, is made up of 500 members elected to 3-year terms. Three hundred are elected from single-member districts based on population, and the remainder are elected according to proportional representation by party list. Senators and deputies may not serve two consecutive terms.

Judiciary.

The country’s highest tribunal is the supreme court of justice, made up of 11 full-time members appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate; each member serves a nonrenewable 15-year term. Other important judicial bodies include circuit courts and district courts.

Local Government.

The chief executive of each of the country’s 31 states is a governor, popularly elected to a 6-year term; the mayor of Mexico City has been popularly elected since 1997. Legislative power in the states is vested in chambers of deputies, whose members are elected to 3-year terms. Each state is subdivided into municipalities (municipios); in all, the country had more than 2400 municipalities in the early 2000s.

Political Parties.

For most of the 20th century, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary party; PRI) was the largest and most important political party in Mexico. It was formed in 1928 as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (National Revolutionary party) and held power continuously for more than seven decades, although under several different names. Not until the 1980s did opposition parties represent a serious challenge to the PRI. Chief among them is the Partido de Acción Nacional (National Action party; PAN), a conservative, pro-Catholic group drawn primarily from the middle class. In the 1994 elections, the PRI finished first and the PAN second; a center-left group, the Partido de la Revolución Democrática (Democratic Revolutionary party; PRD) was third. Although the PRI finished ahead of the PRD and PAN in the elections of July 1997, the party for the first time failed to win an absolute majority in the Chamber of Deputies. In the presidential election of July 2000, the PRI nominee lost to the candidate of the Alliance for Change, a coalition that included the PAN. The PRI and PRD each gained seats at the expense of the PAN in the legislative elections of July 2003.

Health and Welfare.

Most public-health activities are administered by the Mexican ministry of health. Diseases such as smallpox and cholera have been eliminated; however, a shortage of medical personnel exists in rural areas, and population growth continues to outpace the installation of modern water and sewage systems. Average life expectancy at birth in the early 2000s was 78 years for women, 72 years for men; the infant mortality rate was 22 per 1000 live births.

The Mexican Social Security Institute supervises welfare programs, which are financed by contributions from the government, employers, and employees. Services include medical care for the poor, low-cost housing, and accident, illness, maternity, and old-age insurance.

Defense.

In the early 2000s, Mexico’s all-volunteer military included an army of about 144,000 members, a navy of 37,000 members, and an air force of 11,800 members.

International Organizations.

Mexico is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and NAFTA.

HISTORY

Mexico was the site of some of the earliest and most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere. There is evidence that a hunting people populated the area in 21,000 bc or earlier. Crop cultivation began around 8000 bc; squashes were probably the first produce. The first major Mesoamerican civilization was established by the Olmec, who flourished between about 1500 and 600 bc. The Mayan culture attained its peak about the 6th century ad. The warlike Toltec migrated from the north, and in the 10th century they established an empire in the Valley of Mexico. They founded the cities of Tula and Tulancingo (north of present-day Mexico City) and developed a great civilization still evidenced by the ruins of magnificent buildings and monuments.

The Aztec Empire.

In the 12th century the Toltec were vanquished and dispersed by the Chichimeca, who took over the Toltec civilization. A century later seven allied Nahuatlan tribes entered the valley from the north, probably coming from areas now in New Mexico and Arizona. In 1325 the Aztec, or Mexica, the leading tribe, founded a settlement named Tenochtitlán in an area surrounded by marshes in Texcoco, one of the valley lakes. As the settlement grew, its military strength was increased by the construction of causeways that dammed the waters of the surrounding marshes and made the town a virtually impregnable island fortress. Under Itzcoatl, the first Aztec emperor (1360?–1440), the Aztec extended their influence through the entire Valley of Mexico, becoming the preeminent power in central and southern Mexico by the 15th century. Their civilization, based on that of the Toltec and Chichimeca, was highly developed, both intellectually and artistically. The Aztec economy was dependent on agriculture, particularly the cultivation of corn. As they grew wealthy and powerful, the Aztec built great cities and developed an intricate social, political, and religious organization.

The first European explorer to visit Mexican territory was Francisco Fernández de Córdoba (1475–1526), who in 1517 discovered traces of the Maya in Yucatán. A year later Juan de Grijalva (1489?–1527) headed an expedition that explored the eastern coast of Mexico and brought back to the Spanish colony in Cuba the first reports of the rich Aztec Empire. These reports prompted Diego Velázquez, governor of Cuba, to dispatch a large force in 1519, under the command of Hernán Cortés. For the history of the conquest of the Aztec Empire and of Mexico by the Spanish, see Cortés, Hernán.

The Colonial Period.

In 1535, some years after the fall of the Aztec capital, the basic form of colonial government in Mexico was instituted with the appointment of the first Spanish viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza (c. 1490–1552). For the remainder of the Spanish colonial period, from 1535 to 1821, a total of 61 viceroys ruled Mexico. Mendoza and his successors directed a series of military and exploratory expeditions, which eventually made present-day Texas, New Mexico, and California part of New Spain.

A distinguishing characteristic of colonial Mexico was the exploitation of the Indians. Although thousands of Indians were killed during the Spanish conquest, they continued to be the great majority of inhabitants of New Spain, speaking their own languages and retaining much of their own culture. Inevitably they became the laboring class. Although they were decreed nominally free and entitled to wages by Spain, in actuality they were treated little better than slaves. Their plight was the result of the repartimiento system, by which Spanish nobles, priests, and soldiers were granted not only large tracts of land but also jurisdiction over all Indian residents. The government of Spain made several attempts to regulate the exploitation of Indian labor on farms and in mines. Reforms decreed by Spain, however, were largely ineffectual because of the difficulty of enforcement. The condition of the Indians became a primary concern of the Mexican government when the colonial administration was later overthrown.

A second characteristic of colonial Mexico was the position and power of the Roman Catholic church. Franciscan, Augustinian, Dominican, and Jesuit missionaries entered the country with the conquistadores. Juan de Zumárraga (1468–1548) became the first bishop of Mexico in 1528, and the country was created an archbishopric about 1548. The Mexican church became enormously wealthy through gifts and bequests that could be held in perpetuity. Before 1859, when church holdings were nationalized, the church owned one-third of all property and land.

A third characteristic was the existence of rigid social classes: the Indians, the mestizos (an increasingly large group during the colonial era), black slaves, freed blacks, and white Mexicans. The white Mexicans were themselves divided. Highest of all classes was that of the peninsulares, those born in Spain, as opposed to the criollos, or Creoles, persons of pure European descent who had been born and raised in New Spain. The peninsulares were sent from Spain to hold the highest colonial offices in both the civil and church administrations. They held themselves aloof from the Creoles, who were almost never given high office. The resentment of the Creoles became an influential force in the later movement for independence.

From the inception of the viceregal system, inefficiency and corruption in the colonial administration greatly concerned the home Spanish government. Bribery and extortion were common, despite periodic royal commissions of investigation. During the late 18th century Spain attempted to institute a series of administrative reforms, notably in the years 1789–94 under the viceroy Juan Vicente Güémez Pacheco, conde de Revilla Gigedo (1740–99), considered the greatest Spanish colonial administrator. These reforms did not eradicate the fundamental weaknesses of the system, and by the beginning of the 19th century Creole resentment and the inefficient government of New Spain were tending basically to weaken the link between the colony and the parent country. To these internal conditions was added the importation of liberal political ideas from Europe, particularly after the French Revolution of 1789.

The occupation of Spain by Napoleon eventually resulted in the Mexican war for independence. Disorganized by the disaster that had overtaken the home government, the administrative leaders of New Spain began to quarrel among themselves, with no central authority to intervene. In 1808 the viceroy, under pressure from influential Creoles, permitted them to participate in the administration. Other peninsular officials objected and expelled the viceroy. In the midst of these factional struggles a political rebellion was begun by the Mexican people.

War for Independence.

On Sept. 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest in the small village of Dolores, raised the standard of revolt, demanding the abolition of Indian serfdom and caste distinctions. Although initially successful, the Hidalgo revolt was short-lived. The priest was captured by royalist forces and shot at Chihuahua in 1811. The leadership in the liberation movement passed to another priest, José María Morelos y Pavón, who in 1814 proclaimed a republic in Mexico, independent of Spain. A year later Morelos and his army were defeated by royalist forces under Agustín de Iturbide, a Creole general. The revolution continued under Vicente Guerrero (1783–1831), who headed a comparatively small army.

The Spanish revolution of 1820 altered the rebellion in Mexico. Liberal political tendencies in Spain dismayed the conservative Mexican leaders, who themselves began an intrigue designed to separate the viceroyalty from Spain. On their behalf Iturbide met Guerrero in 1821 and signed an agreement by which the two combined forces to bring about independence. Their plan, known as the Plan of Iguala, set forth three mutual guarantees: Mexico would become an independent country, ruled as a limited monarchy; the Roman Catholic church would be the state church; and the Spanish and Creoles would be given equal rights and privileges. The viceroy took no active measures against Iturbide and was forced to resign by the faction that opposed independence. The last viceroy of New Spain was Juan O’Donojú (1762–1821) who, on his arrival in Mexico in July 1821, was forced to accept the Treaty of Córdoba, marking the formal beginning of Mexican independence.

Empire and Republic.

A turbulent period ensued. In 1822, by a coup d’état, Iturbide made himself Emperor Agustín I, but was deposed ten months later by a revolt led, notably, by Antonio López de Santa Anna, his former aide. A republic was proclaimed, and Guadalupe Victoria (1789–1843) became the first president. Mexico, however, was unprepared for sudden democracy. A struggle began between the Centralists—a conservative group composed of church leaders, rich landowners, Creoles, and army officials resolved to maintain a highly centralized colonial form of government—and the Federalists—a liberal, anticlerical faction supporting the establishment of federated sovereign states and relief for the Indians and other oppressed groups. Guerrero, a liberal leader, became president in 1829, but was shot to death in 1831 by forces led by the political and military leader Anastasio Bustamante (1780–1853). Revolt followed revolt until 1833, when Santa Anna, a Centralist who was popular with the army, was elected president. Shortly after his coming to power, his policies involved the new republic in war.

War with the U.S.

The residents of Texas, then under Mexican rule, had been angered in 1829 by a governmental decree abolishing slavery, and the plan by Santa Anna to centralize the government increased their resentment. Texas rebelled in 1836 and declared its independence after Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texan leader Sam Houston at San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. In 1846, as a result of friction between U.S. citizens and Mexicans, a dispute over the western boundary of Texas, and the desire of Americans to acquire California, the U.S. declared war on May 12 (see Mexican War). The Mexican forces were again routed, and U.S. troops occupied northern Mexico and, in 1847, Mexico City. Under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on Feb. 2, 1848, the Rio Grande was fixed as the boundary of Texas and the territory now forming the states of California and New Mexico became part of the U.S. The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 clarified the New Mexico boundary and gave an additional strip of territory (now southern Arizona and a slice of southwestern New Mexico) to the U.S.

Mexico was confronted with a grave reconstruction problem after the war. Finances were devastated, and the prestige of the government, already weak, had considerably diminished. Santa Anna, compelled to resign after the war, returned from exile in 1853 and, with Centralist support, declared himself dictator. Early in 1854 a liberal revolt began, and after more than a year of intensive fighting, Santa Anna fled from Mexico. The revolution was the first event in a long, fierce struggle between the powerful classes that had traditionally dominated Mexico and the liberal democrats who demanded a voice in the government.

Juárez and Maximilian.

The great leader to emerge among the liberals was an Indian, Benito Pablo Juárez, who became famous for his integrity and unswerving loyalty to democracy. For the next 25 years Juárez was the principal influence in Mexican politics. A federal form of government, universal male suffrage, freedom of speech, and other civil liberties were embodied in the constitution of 1857. Conservative groups bitterly opposed the new constitution. They were supported by Spain, and in 1858 the War of the Reform, between conservative and liberal groups, devastated Mexico. The Juárez government was supported by the U.S., and by 1860 the Juárist armies had won decisively. Meanwhile, as provisional president (1858–61), Juárez had issued a decree nationalizing church property, separating church and state, and suppressing religious orders.

Elected president in 1861, Juárez suspended interest payments on foreign loans incurred by preceding governments. Angered by his decree, France, Great Britain, and Spain decided to intervene jointly for the protection of their investments in Mexico. The prime mover in the agreement was Napoleon III of France. A joint expedition occupied Veracruz in 1861, but when Napoleon’s colonial ambitions became evident, the British and Spanish withdrew in 1862. For a year French troops battled their way through Mexico, finally entering Mexico City in June 1863. Juárez and his cabinet fled, and a provisional conservative government proclaimed a Mexican Empire and offered the Crown, at Napoleon’s instigation, to Maximilian, archduke of Austria.

From 1864 to 1865 Maximilian and his wife, Carlotta (1840–1927), ruled the empire, but in 1865 France, under pressure from the U.S., which continued to recognize Juárez, withdrew its forces. The forces of Juárez reconquered the country after the French had been evacuated in 1867, and republican troops under Gen. Porfirio Díaz occupied Mexico City. Maximilian, besieged at Querétaro, was forced to surrender and, after a court-martial, was shot.

Again Juárez attempted to restore order, but was met with revolts. In 1871, after an indecisive election, the Congress of Mexico declared Juárez president. Díaz, a candidate who had been defeated, led an unsuccessful insurrection. Juárez died in 1872 and was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada (1827–89), head of the Mexican supreme court. In 1876, when Lerdo de Tejada sought reelection, Diáz led another revolt. Successful this time, he became president in 1877.

The Díaz Dictatorship.

Except for one term from 1880 to 1884, when the nominal power was in the hands of one of his aides, Díaz ruled Mexico as a despot until 1911. Under the Díaz dictatorship Mexico made tremendous advances in economic and commercial development. Industrial plants, railroad extension, public works, harbor improvement, and public building were part of the Díaz program. Many of the new undertakings were financed and managed by foreigners. This became a major factor in the discontent of most Mexicans under the autocratic Díaz government. Moreover, Díaz favored the rich owners of large estates, increasing their properties by assigning them communal lands that belonged to the Indians. When the Indians revolted, they were sold into peonage. The dictator paid little attention to education for the people, and he favored the church, paying little heed to the secularization policy of 1859. Discontent and a spirit of revolt increased throughout Mexico.

In 1908, aware of this discontent, Díaz announced that he would welcome an opposition candidate in 1910 election, in order to prove his regard for democracy. The candidate put forward by the liberal group was Francisco Indalecio Madero. The influence of Madero grew and, although he was imprisoned for a time on a pretext by Díaz, the liberal leader became increasingly active. After Díaz was reelected in 1910, Madero was acknowledged as the leader of a popular revolution. Díaz was forced to resign in 1911 and soon afterward left Mexico permanently.

Period of Turmoil.

Madero was elected president in 1911, but was not forceful enough to end the political and military strife. Other rebel leaders, particularly Emiliano Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa, completely refused to submit to presidential authority. Victoriano Huerta, head of the Madero army, conspired with the rebel leaders and in 1913 seized control of Mexico City. Huerta became dictator and, four days after assuming power, had Madero murdered. New armed revolts under Zapata, Villa, and Venustiano Carranza began, and Huerta resigned in 1914. Carranza took power in the same year, and Villa at once declared war on him.

In addition to the ambitions of rival military leaders, intervention by foreign governments seeking to protect the interests of their nationals added to the confusion. In August 1915 a commission representing eight Latin American countries and the U.S. recognized Carranza as the lawful authority in Mexico. The rebel leaders, with the exception of Villa, laid down their arms. The bandit leader incited his forces to commit atrocities against American nationals to show his resentment against the U.S. and in 1916 led a raid on Columbus, N.Mex. As a result, an American force under Gen. John J. Pershing was sent to Mexico, but Pershing and his troops saw little action because of Carranza’s own hostility toward the U.S. Villa continued to disrupt the Mexican countryside until 1920.

The Revolution.

A new constitution, promulgated in 1917, provided for a labor code, prohibited a president from serving consecutive terms, expropriated all property of religious orders, and restored communal lands to the Indians. Many provisions dealing with labor and social welfare were exceedingly advanced and for their day radical. Some of the most drastic were intended to curb foreign ownership of mineral properties and land.

Carranza was elected president in 1917, but turbulence continued. Although he did not enforce many of the constitutional provisions, he angered foreign oil companies by ruling that oil was an inalienable national resource and imposing a tax on oil lands and on oil contracts made before May 1, 1917. In 1920 three of the leading generals, Plutarco Elías Calles, Álvaro Obregón, and Adolfo de la Huerta (1877–1955), revolted against Carranza, who was killed in the ensuing conflict. Obregón was elected president in 1920.

When Obregón consented to arbitrate and adjudicate the claims of American oil companies, he was recognized by the U.S. in 1923. Later in the year, the U.S. supported the Obregón regime during an abortive revolt by de la Huerta. In 1924 Calles was elected president and began to put constitutional reforms, chiefly agrarian, into effect. He also rehabilitated Mexican finances, instituted an educational program, and succeeded in resolving the dispute with the foreign oil companies. In carrying out religious reforms, however, Calles provoked considerable opposition. The church refused to recognize the secularization provisions, and relations between church and state became severely strained. The tension was lessened largely through the mediation of Dwight W. Morrow (1873–1931), who became U.S. ambassador to Mexico in 1927. Morrow had previously mediated the oil dispute.

Obregón was reelected president in 1928 but was assassinated several months later by a religious fanatic. The provisional presidency was awarded by the congress to Emilio Portes Gil (1891–1978). The influence of Calles, however, remained paramount. Abelardo L. Rodríguez (1889–1967), a business associate of Calles, became provisional president in 1932. In the same year the National Revolutionary party (PNR), the official government party, projected a 6-year program for a “cooperative economic system tending toward socialism,” and including a labor code, public works, distribution of land, and the seizure of foreign-owned oil lands.

The PNR program was put into effect in 1934 with the election of Lázaro Cárdenas as president. Cárdenas emphasized agrarian reforms, social welfare, and education. In 1936 an expropriation law was passed enabling the government to seize private property whenever necessary for public or social welfare. The railway system was nationalized in 1937, as were the subsoil rights of the oil companies. Mexican oil workers struck for higher wages that same year. In 1938, after a supreme court decision had upheld their claims and the foreign-owned oil companies had refused to pay, the Mexican government expropriated the oil properties. A government agency called Petróleos Mexicanos, or Pemex, was created to administer the nationalized industry. The expropriations seriously affected the Mexican oil industry, for it became difficult for Mexico to sell oil in U.S., Dutch, and British territories. Mexico was therefore forced to arrange barter deals with Italy, Germany, and Japan. The oil trade with these nations, however, was cut short by World War II.

In 1940 Manuel Ávila Camacho, endorsed by Mexican labor, was elected president. His policies were more conservative than those of Cárdenas. The so-called Good Neighbor Policy of the U.S. became dominant in Mexican politics. This policy, involving close cooperation with the U.S. in commercial and military matters, was considerably advanced in 1941, as U.S. involvement in World War II became imminent. Mexico agreed to allow the U.S. Air Force to use Mexican airfields and also agreed to export critical and strategic materials (mostly scarce minerals) only to countries in the western hemisphere.

World War II.

Consistent with its policy of cooperation with the U.S., Mexico severed diplomatic relations with Japan on Dec. 8, 1941, and with Italy and Germany three days later. On May 22, 1942, after the sinking of two Mexican ships by submarines, the Mexican Congress declared war on Germany, Italy, and Japan. In June of that year Mexico signed the declaration of the UN. Later in 1942 a trade agreement, establishing mutual tariff concessions, was negotiated by Mexico and the U.S.

Complete military cooperation between the two nations was effected in 1943, when it was agreed that each should enlist into its army nationals of the other country who lived within its borders. Other wartime projects included a joint commission for economic cooperation, instituted to find methods to relieve the Mexican shortages of food and strategic materials, and a Mexican-U.S. industrial commission, appointed to plan the industrialization of Mexico. In 1944 Mexico agreed to pay U.S. oil companies $24 million, plus interest at 3 percent, for oil properties expropriated in 1938. Also in 1944, Mexican and U.S. officials developed a 20-year plan for the expansion of the government-controlled oil industry.

Postwar Decades.

In June 1945, Mexico became an original member of the United Nations. In 1946 Miguel Alemán Valdés was elected president on a platform calling for a more equitable distribution of wealth, extensive irrigation works, and further industrialization. Alemán continued close relations with the U.S. In 1947 the Export-Import Bank lent Mexico $50 million for public works and industrial development; the same year, British and Dutch oil companies, claimants of $250 million for expropriated properties, settled for just $21 million. Seeking to reverse the unfavorable balance of trade, the government devalued the peso in 1948 and sharply restricted imports. The following year, for the first time since the expropriations of 1938, two U.S. petroleum companies were permitted to drill for oil, under the supervision of Pemex. The government stabilized the peso in June with the aid of loans from the U.S. Treasury and the International Monetary Fund. The government party, renamed the Institutional Revolutionary party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, or PRI), won overwhelmingly in 1949 elections to the Chamber of Deputies.

In 1950 Mexico obtained an Export-Import Bank loan of $150 million to finance improvements in transportation, agriculture, and power facilities. Meanwhile, the continuing heavy flow of illegal immigration to the United States remained an irritant in U.S. relations. Agreements between Mexico and the U.S. allowed for the legal entry of a specified number of migrant workers annually, but approximately 1 million Mexicans were crossing the border illegally every year. In 1952 the U.S. Congress passed a bill providing for the punishment by fines and imprisonment of U.S. companies recruiting and employing aliens who entered the country illegally.

In a historic move, the national legislature in 1953 ratified a constitutional amendment providing for the first time for woman suffrage.

The 1960s through 1980s.

President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1891–1973) completed a six-year term in office in 1958 and was succeeded by another PRI leader, Adolfo López Mateos (1910–69), a former labor minister. Reversing a tradition of presidential silence on relations with the Roman Catholic church, López Mateos declared that attainment of revolutionary goals should find no obstacle in religion. A controversial constitutional amendment empowering the government to force businesses to share profits with workers was approved in 1962, following an outbreak of hunger marches and squatter invasions of private landholdings. Early in 1963 an Independent Peasants’ Central party was formed to compete with the National Peasants Confederation in the dominant PRI. Speakers at the organizing congress said that the country still had 3 million landless peasants, while just 9600 individuals owned 80 million ha (197 million acres) of land, of which only 20.2 million ha (50 million acres) were being cultivated.

In 1964 the PRI candidate, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, who also was supported by most other parties, won election as president on a platform stressing the need to alleviate the plight of poor farmers. Mexico refused to comply with an Organization of American States decision, taken in 1964 following charges of Cuban terrorist activity in Venezuela, to sever diplomatic relations with Cuba. During the year the U.S. ended its program of importing seasonal Mexican workers, thus eliminating an important source of dollar earnings for Mexico. A more popular U.S. action was the official transfer to Mexico of about 160 ha (about 400 acres) of territory that had previously come under U.S. jurisdiction when the Rio Grande, which marks the U.S. boundary with Mexico, had shifted course.

In 1966 Díaz Ordaz announced a 5-year economic development plan. During the same year Pemex carried out a program to increase the number of petrochemical plants in operation. During 1968 the government was confronted by violent student demonstrations; more than 100 people were killed and many others wounded in clashes between demonstrators and government troops. Despite fears of disruption, the Olympic Games were held successfully in Mexico City in October.

In 1970 Luis Echeverría Álvarez (1922– ) became president; the former interior minister was elected by a wide margin as the candidate of the PRI. During his 6-year term Echeverría sought to pursue a balanced strategy of economic growth and adopted measures to reduce foreign control of the economy and increase exports. Ties with the U.S. were loosened, and in their place Echeverría negotiated economic accords with several Latin American nations, Canada, the European Community (now European Union), and the Soviet-bloc Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. The Mexican economy grew at a healthy annual pace of 6.3 percent during 1970–74, but beginning in 1975 growth decreased markedly and inflation rose substantially. In an attempt to reduce the nation’s foreign-trade deficit, the government in 1976 devalued the peso by more than 50 percent by changing from a fixed to a freely floating exchange rate. A potentially beneficial economic development was the discovery in 1974–75 of huge crude-petroleum deposits in Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Veracruz states. In late 1976 Echeverría decreed that about 100,000 ha (250,000 acres) of prime farmland in Sonora and Sinaloa states be expropriated with compensation.

José López Portillo, another PRI figure, was elected president in 1976. A former finance minister, he followed a program of economic austerity, calling on workers to reduce wage demands and on businesses to hold down prices and increase investment expenditures. The economy improved, although high inflation persisted. López Portillo acted to improve ties with the U.S. and also reestablished diplomatic relations with Spain after a lapse of 38 years. Oil production more than doubled in the late 1970s; this, combined with hefty price increases, gave Mexico under López Portillo a more meaningful independence, especially in U.S. relations.

In 1982 Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (1934– ) was elected to succeed President López Portillo, as difficult times followed. By the mid-1980s a rapid increase in foreign debt, coupled with falling oil prices, had plunged the country into severe financial straits. The PRI claimed victory in 1985 congressional elections, but there were charges of irregularites. The same year, a devastating earthquake killed 9500 people and caused heavy damage.

Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1948– ), another PRI candidate, was elected president in 1988, again amidst protests about electoral fraud. That year hurricane Gilbert devastated the Yucatán peninsula and severely damaged the area just south of Texas; overall damage was estimated at $880 million. In 1989 the Salinas government sped up the privatization of state-controlled corporations and modified trade and investment regulations to encourage foreign investment by permitting full control of corporations by foreign investors. In October Salinas and U.S. President George H. W. Bush, meeting in Washington, D.C., signed what was described as the broadest trade and investment agreement ever concluded between the two nations.

Upheavals in the 1990s.

In 1992 constitutional changes abolished restrictions imposed on the Roman Catholic church in 1917 by the Mexican government. Meanwhile, in December Presidents Salinas and Bush and Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA; see Tariffs, United States). This major treaty, ratified in 1993, took effect at the start of 1994.

On Jan. 1, 1994, armed Indian guerrillas calling themselves the Zapatista National Liberation Army took over several towns in Chiapas, Mexico’s southernmost state. Federal troops moved in, and dozens of Indians were killed. Negotiations with the Zapatistas led in early March to a preliminary accord in which the Salinas government pledged political, judicial, social, and land reforms. Later that month, the PRI presidential candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta (1950–94), was assassinated while campaigning in Tijuana. His replacement, Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León (1951– ), an economist who had been his campaign manager, won the presidential election in August.

Inaugurated in December, Zedillo faced an immediate crisis when the value of the peso plunged on international markets; an austerity plan and pledges of U.S. aid helped stabilize the currency. Of a $20 billion line of credit extended by the U.S. in February 1995, Mexico used about $12.5 billion, repaying most of the loan the following year. Also in February, an investigation into drug payoffs and other criminal activities under the Salinas government led to the arrest of the former president’s brother, Raúl Salinas de Gortari (1946– ), on charges that he had masterminded the 1994 assassination of PRI Secretary-General José Francisco Ruiz Massieu (1946–94), his former brother-in-law; he was later convicted and sentenced to prison. Former President Salinas fled the country in March 1995. The Popular Revolutionary Army, a guerrilla group, launched coordinated attacks on police and military targets in August 1996.

New Political Currents.

Beset by corruption scandals, the PRI suffered a stunning defeat in the elections of July 1997. Opposition parties captured a majority in the Chamber of Deputies, and a leftist leader, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Solórzano (1934– ), son of the late President Cárdenas, became mayor of Mexico City.

The presidential election of July 2000 marked a further humiliation for the PRI. A conservative reformer, Vicente Fox Quesada, candidate of the National Action party (PAN), finished ahead of five competitors, with 43 percent of the popular vote. The PRI nominee, Francisco Labastida Ochoa (1942– ), took second with 37 percent, while Cárdenas came in third with 17 percent. Fox was inaugurated on December 1, ending more than seven decades of PRI rule.

The new president proposed an ambitious program, pledging to crack down on corruption, boost foreign investment, and restructure the energy sector. While his success was limited, especially on the economic front, he did achieve some gains. For example, Fox signed Mexico”s first freedom of information law in June 2002. Days later, he declassified Mexico”s secret police files from 1952 through 1985. Prosecutors, academics, and relatives of victims of Mexico”s “dirty war”–when hundreds of student activists and protesters in the 1960s through 1980s “disappeared” while in government custody–were given first access to the declassified files. In July 2002 the Mexican president signed trade agreements with Brazil, Argentina, and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) trade bloc. He also reaffirmed that Mexico would become part of a proposed hemispheric free trade bloc by 2006.

In February 2003, the United Nations International Court of Justice, or World Court, ruled that the U.S. government should stay the impending executions of three Mexican citizens on death row in the U.S. Mexico had filed a lawsuit alleging that state and local officials in the U.S. were violating Mexican defendants” rights by denying them access to legal help from the Mexican government. At the time there were 51 Mexican citizens on death row in the U.S

Fox had hoped to work with President George W. Bush on a plan to legalize the status of millions of undocumented Mexican immigrants living in the U.S., but the attack by foreign terrorists against the U.S. on Sept. 11, 2001, dampened U.S. interest in liberalization of immigration policy. A further irritant in U.S.-Mexican relations was the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq (2003), which Fox did not support. Voters dealt a setback to Fox and his PAN party in the legislative elections of July 2003, granting the PRI a solid plurality in the Chamber of Deputies.

In June 2004, more than 250,000 people gathered in Mexico City to protest high rates of homicide and kidnapping in the country’s urban areas. Voter disillusionment with Fox after he failed to pass promised economic and energy reforms contributed to the PRI’s victory in a number of mayoral and gubernatorial races. In July a judge dismissed an indictment against former President Echeverría Álvarez on charges that he ordered the 1971 killing of student protesters, but the Supreme Court, acting upon a request from President Fox, subsequently agreed to hear the charges.

On July 2, 2006, Mexican voters went to the polls to elect a new president, as well as legislators and others. Preliminary results gave an edge of less than 1 percentage point to the pro-business PAN’s Felipe Caldéron (1962– ) over his closest opponent, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (1953– ), of the leftist Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD). The long-ruling PRI trailed in third place. The election had split the country along class lines, and López Obrador, rejecting the results as fraudulent for various reasons, rallied his supporters in mass protest demonstrations. The country’s seven-member Federal Election Tribunal Sept. 5 officially declared Caldéron the winner; the panel deplored what it considered a negative campaign by Caldéron and his supporters, but said there was no proof of fraud or weighty irregularities and no laws had been broken. López Obrador rejected the decision, saying he would never accept Caldéron as president.

Note: An article from Funk & Wagnalls® New Encyclopedia. © 2006 World Almanac Education Group. A WRC Media Company. All rights reserved. Except as otherwise permitted by written agreement, uses of the work inconsistent with U.S. and applicable foreign copyright and related laws are prohibited.